Japanese worldview: hierarchical structures

This is the last article in a series that investigates the historical development of three aspects of the Japanese worldview—collectivist identity, multiple-minded spirituality, and hierarchical structures—and the obstacles they pose for the growth of Japanese Christians and churches. This series is based on a dissertation written by a Japanese friend, who believes we need to address these three core elements of the Japanese worldview as we seek to contextualize the gospel for Japanese people. His goal is the effective discipleship of Japanese Christians, by helping them thrive in their walk with the Lord and with each other in the church. (The first article was published in the Winter 2021 issue of Japan Harvest and the second in the Spring 2021 issue.)

One of the first pieces of advice my husband and I were given about coming to work in Japan was, “You’ll need to learn to love hōrensō (spinach)!” This is an acronym for hōkoku (to report), renraku (to inform), and sōdan (to consult). The upward flow of reporting/checking and the downward flow of direction/instruction are the lifeblood of Japanese organisations—from the preschool mums’ volunteer group to businesses and government bodies that run the country. To many from Western cultures, the hierarchical nature of Japanese groups can come as a shock, but it has been a key aspect of the Japanese worldview for centuries.

Hierarchy in history

The feudal Edo period (1603–1868) was characterised by bushidō (the way of the warrior)—the mentality of self-sacrifice, loyalty, and respect for superiors.¹ Although the term bushidō was coined in the Edo period, the mentality it formalised had been fostered since the early fifth century when Confucianism was introduced to Japan. Its creed played a significant role in developing the ethical principles underlying societal and educational systems.

Confucian society was organized around five basic community relationships: lord–retainer, parent–child, older–younger siblings, husband–wife, and friend–friend. Practices of loyalty and obedience to superiors were firmly established.² The Tokugawa Shōgunate (ruling family government of the Edo period) reinforced this hierarchical consciousness in people’s thinking by formalising a system of four classes—samurai, farmers, artisans, and merchants—plus the imperial family above and the outcastes below. They taught that it was impossible for a person to change their status.

Also during the Edo period, the educational network of Buddhist temples was developed and expanded, though it still only catered to the upper classes. This movement has been recognised as the foundation for modern education in Japan. Bushidō and Confucian ideologies were fundamental to the curriculum and method of teaching and learning, and they are still influential today. In a strict hierarchical relationship, students were expected to learn by watching and copying the teacher, and through repeated practice and failure.³ Bushidō also attributed virtue to completing menial tasks unrelated to the content being learnt, in the belief that hours of labour would make students fit for learning. These early schools were closely connected to the local Buddhist sect, where the status of the teacher or founder of that sect was paramount.

But in 1867, the 15th Tokugawa Shōgun resigned, officially submitting to Emperor Meiji. A new era had begun, and Japan reopened to the world. As the members of society with the highest education and those most used to wielding authority, many samurai had roles as intellectuals and officials, but with the change in political leadership, many lost their basis for power. When the first Protestant missionaries came in the 1860s, and looked for converts who could study the Bible and become the new church’s leaders, they found many samurai, out of a job, but equipped to study and lead.⁴ This meant that many of the church leaders of the newly emerging Japanese church came from the culture and worldview of the samurai, and they brought their bushidō-based ideals for leadership and education into the church culture.

Around the same time, the Meiji government instituted Shinto practice and emperor worship as a required demonstration of loyalty and patriotism for all citizens. So as the education system expanded to become a public system for all people, schools were separated from Buddhist influence, but were required to teach the ethics and practice of Shinto, not as religion, but as respect for the Emperor as kami (god).⁵ Most Christian leaders of the time complied with this expectation. The Meiji government may have moved away from the feudal class system, but hierarchy was now nationalised and institutionalised, with their god-like Emperor at the top.

Hierarchy today

While class distinctions and discrimination are frowned on in modern Japan, social organisations remain strongly hierarchical. This often has positive results for society. For example, even from preschool years, older children are expected to take on responsibility and authority for looking after younger children. Through schools, clubs, universities, and even into working life, partner relationships of senpai and kōhai (senior and junior) encourage older-younger relationships of support and mentoring. However, these relationships are also imbibed with expectations of top-down instruction, assistance, and friendship, which should be met (by the junior person) with gratitude, loyalty, and respect. This can result in a power imbalance that is easily and often abused.

Furthermore, the worldview resulting from a history of Confucian-based bushidō and Shintoist emperor worship engenders a tendency to glorify leaders and founders, a sense of exclusive allegiance and loyalty within social organisations, and blind trust (following direction without seeking understanding). These pressures from both within and outside the church can have a disastrous impact on Christians. The position of power invested in a pastor can make it difficult to share authority with lay leaders in the church. Allegiances can make it difficult for churches to work together. And the passive participation of members can repress growth in understanding and personal maturity of faith. Outside the church, those in authority and the demands of work and education often compete for a Christian’s loyalty and effort.

Hierarchy of love

Of course, abuse of authority by those in leadership in the church is an appalling problem in myriads of churches worldwide. But each instance of failure in the church must be understood within its cultural framework if we hope to understand what has gone wrong and how to return to the path of love. The book of Philemon is helpful for understanding the Japanese context since Paul addresses a social situation within the Greco–Roman hierarchical culture, which was similar to that of Japan. In this letter, Paul writes of himself as occupying every possible level of the social hierarchy. He also gives directions for how authority should function within the church—for the growth and development of believers and the glory of God. He appeals to Philemon regarding Onesimus, “on the basis of love” (Philemon 1:9 NIV).

Fellow workers under God

The first difficulty for the Japanese church resulting from the historical development of hierarchy is the status attributed to leaders. Since many of the first Protestant Japanese leaders had grown up in higher classes and attending the bushidō-based education system, they naturally established a hierarchical and exclusive culture within the church, which has continued in many places. Titles like sensei (teacher) and hirashinto (ordinary/lay believers) indicate the social structure that implies a suitable level of respect for the pastor, so the pastor’s opinions are considered absolute and their requests are prioritised.⁶ As a consequence, many pastors may expect church members to follow their direction without questioning. It also may not feel natural for pastors to share authority with others. Many churches have “home gatherings” during the week, but rather than designating leaders, often a pastor visits every gathering to give a short message. The shared assumption is that members cannot study the Word of God correctly unless a pastor interprets it for them. This limits the growth of congregations: the average congregation size in Japan has been estimated to be around 40, which may well reflect the maximum number of people whom a pastor is able to manage and provide pastoral care for in this way.⁷

Paul sets a very counter-cultural example. He doesn’t hand down instruction to be received with gratitude by those below him, according to the expected behaviour. He flips the expectations by expressing gratitude to Philemon for his love, partnership, and care for those in his church. Paul acknowledges Philemon as a dear friend, fellow worker, and brother. Philemon is a disciple of Paul, but Paul also describes him as a partner and commends him for refreshing the church. The flow of gratitude and direction of loyalty is reversed.

Perhaps because the hierarchy of that day carried expectations of obedience, Paul makes very clear that, while he was in a position to command Philemon, he forgoes this authority. In verse 19, Paul states his authority to make such an outrageous request as freeing a slave: spiritually Philemon is indebted to Paul and, unlike the monetary debt, he cannot possibly repay the price of his life. Within the social structures, Paul is due some benefit. But Paul’s intention was to remind Philemon that his indebtedness and gratitude is ultimately due to Christ. Paul intentionally places himself under Philemon through phrases such as “Paul—an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus” (v. 9) and “if you consider me a partner” (v. 17). When he makes his request, he indicates that the authority to decide is up to Philemon, and that it should be voluntarily decided out of love. In this Christian hierarchy, actions are not motivated by blind trust in a human leader but by a deep personal conviction of the spirit.

Allegiance to God’s kingdom

Another obstacle of hierarchical structures resulting from the historical value of loyalty to a certain group and its leader is sectarianism, or a tendency to give allegiance only to one’s own church. Japanese churches have been described as “pastor-oriented” congregations, being more concerned about which pastor preaches or leads a congregation than the health of the church itself as the body of Christ.⁸ Paul famously criticised this kind of attitude in the church in Corinth and reminds them they are one under Christ: “One of you says, ‘I follow Paul’; another, ‘I follow Apollos’; another, ‘I follow Cephas’; still another, ‘I follow Christ’” (1 Cor 1:12). When pastors demonstrate that spiritual growth—evident in loving relationships among church members—is more important than growth in size of the congregation, they can move from a hierarchy that glorifies men to a family of God’s kingdom that glorifies God.

In Colossians 4, Paul describes those travelling with Onesimus and gives an update on who is working in his geographic area; he also asks Philemon and the others in Colossae to greet the churches in Laodicea and at Nympha’s house, and to exchange letters. He describes people from various different groups as coworkers, fellow servants for the kingdom of God, and brothers and sisters in Christ. Clearly, he assumes that churches have an interest in the well-being of other churches and that those nearby would be in close contact and provide mutual encouragement.

Mature disciples

The third obstacle for growth is a tendency to passively wait for direction from pastors or leaders. This attitude hinders Christians from studying the Word individually and leads them to follow leaders without thinking. Traditional bushidō-style educational values also lead many pastors to expect members to grow through serving in the church and participating in activities. Unfortunately, many Christians do this without understanding biblical reasons or motives for these programs, without personal Bible study, and without connecting Christian belief to everyday life. Once a person becomes a Christian, they may be obliged, like apprentices in feudal times, to serve at a number of events and work in various ministries before understanding their meaning or maturing in faith. Soon the joy of salvation is lost and they get tired of serving the church without grasping the purpose.⁹ When they encounter pressure from other authorities, they are not able to stand against the demands because there is no root to their Christian service.

The short time that members remain in Christian community is one of the serious difficulties of the Japanese church. Statistics show that there are many who once joined Christian fellowship, but left within a few years. Japanese Christian academic, Furuya Yasuyo, writes of one survey from a church in Tokyo that found the average period Christians attend their fellowship is only 2.8 years. Phrases unique to Japan such as “a graduate follower” and “a dropout follower” demonstrate that a church can be considered an institution similar to school. This perspective doesn’t see the Christian community as a place to belong forever; they graduate and leave sooner or later.

It’s vital for Japanese Christians to grow deep roots of faith to maintain their relationship with God. Paul clearly encourages Philemon to have a self-motivated mindset to think and act on the basis of a deepening understanding (v. 6). Paul said a true disciple of Christ should follow the lifestyle of Christ out of love for him. Paul writes, “I did not want to do anything without your consent” (Phil. 1:14). Paul entrusted the authority for the decision of Onesimus’ status to Philemon. If Paul had given an order and Philemon had obeyed, it would not change Philemon’s heart and could even result in bitterness. However, if Philemon could internalise Paul’s perspective on Christian master–slave relationships, he would handle the matter voluntarily with a change of heart. Paul expected Philemon to exercise his freedom in love rather than out of obligation or duty.

Teaching someone to understand the motive and purpose of what they’re learning is very different to the “sensei approach” to education. It requires a close relationship of two-way communication, an environment in which questions can be fearlessly asked and graciously answered. It also involves ongoing support from a teacher as the student puts into practice what they’ve learnt, and provides the freedom to fail without shame. To help Philemon navigate his negative experiences with Onesimus, Paul gives practical support by promising to cover Onesimus’ debt (vv. 18–19). To free a runaway slave was an unthinkable action and might ruin a master’s reputation, causing further loss. The decision had to be self-motivated, as Philemon would not be able to follow through with the decision unless he was acting on his conviction. At the same time, Philemon needed the reassurance that Paul would support him and encourage him to maintain a godly perspective. Paul’s intention was not just to bear the past liability of what Onesimus owed Philemon. Rather, his commitment was covering any future possible cost so that Philemon would feel secure to take a step of faith. Even if it cost Paul societal kudos, he would continue to support Onesimus as a fellow worker in Christ. This style of discipleship could transform Japanese churches.

Conclusion

The Christian worldview establishes a loving hierarchy of servant leadership, headed by Christ our God who leads by example of relinquishing authority and inviting us to join him in establishing his kingdom. As Christian leaders, it’s vitally important to help Japanese Christians grow deep roots of understanding God’s Word and its application to daily life, including our relationships. Together with our Japanese brothers and sisters, let’s demonstrate our reverence for Christ by serving one another nationwide, with caring support, and in growing understanding of his love.

1. Boye Lafayette De Mente, Japan’s Cultural Code Words, 233 Key Terms That Explain the Attitude and Behavior of the Japanese (Singapore: Tuttle Publishing, 2004), 47.
2. Inazo Nitobé, Bushidō: The Soul of Japan (Malvern, Pennsylvania: A Public Domain Book, 1899), 5.
3. Mark Mullins and Megumi Takasaki, メイド∙イン∙ジャパンのキリスト教 [Made in Japan Christianity] (Tokyo: Toransubyū, 2005), 87, 118.
4. Atsuyoshi Fujiwara, Theology of Culture in a Japanese Context: A Believers’ Church Perspective (Eugene, Oregon: Pickwick Publications, 2012), 220.
5. Chido Takeda, “School Education and Religion in Japan,” Rissho University, Tokyo, https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/3200 (accessed May 11, 2021).
6. Graham Orr, “Three key cultural dynamics,” Japan Harvest, Summer 2018, 12.
7. Yasuo Furuya 古屋安雄, なぜ日本にキリスト教は広まらないのか―近代日本とキリスト教 [Why Does Christianity Not Spread in Japan—Modern Japan and Christianity] (Tokyo: Kyōbunkan, 2009), 38-41.
8. Furuya, なぜ, 16.
9. Reima Shinjo, 海外でクリスチャンになった日本人とどう向き合うか宇都宮で帰国者支援セミナー [Seminar for returnees in Utsunomiya], Christianity Today, https://www.christiantoday.co.jp/articles/16265/20150610/returnees-seminar.htm (June 10, 2015).